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| |region = [[Western philosophy]] | | |region = [[Western philosophy]] |
| |era = [[20th-century philosophy]] | | |era = [[20th-century philosophy]] |
| |image = Gilles Deleuze.webp | | |image = MariaSmooth.png}} |
| |caption =
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| |name = Gilles Deleuze
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| |birth_date = 18 January 1925
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| |birth_place = [[Paris]], [[French Third Republic]]
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| |death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1995|11|4|1925|1|18}}
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| |death_place = Paris, France
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| |alma_mater = [[University of Paris]]<br />([[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]]; [[Master of Arts|M.A.]], 1947; Doctorat d'Etat ès lettres, 1969)
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| |institutions = [[University of Paris VIII]]
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| |school_tradition = {{plainlist|
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| * [[Continental philosophy]]
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| * [[Post-Marxism]]
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| * [[French Nietzscheanism]]
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| * [[Materialism]]<ref name=SEP/>
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| * {{c|Neo-Spinozism}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/Spinoza/Texts/toscano_spinoza_teheran.pdf |author=Toscano, Alberto |title=The Politics of Spinozism: Composition and Communication (Paper presented at the Cultural Research Bureau of Iran, Tehran, 4 January 2005) |quote=Alberto Toscano (2005): "Though Spinozists have existed ever since the radical circles that rippled through Europe in the wake of Spinoza's death, I think it is fair to say that only in the past 50 years or so has there been a Spinozism to match in hermeneutic rigour and creative interventions the history of Kantianism or Hegelianism, that only now has the hereticism that [[Louis Althusser|Althusser]] referred to been complemented by the labour of the concept. Arguably, it is only now then that the scope of his thought and its relevance to our social and political existence can be truly appreciated, at a historical juncture when the communicative power of the multitude and of what Marx called the ''general intellect'' is so intensified that the physics, ethics, ontology and politics of Spinoza (what are ultimately indissociable facets of his philosophizing) can be thought simultaneously." |date=January 2005 |access-date=20 June 2019|author-link=Alberto Toscano }}</ref><ref>Vinciguerra, Lorenzo (2009), 'Spinoza in French Philosophy Today,'. Philosophy Today 53(4): 422–437. {{doi|10.5840/philtoday200953410}}</ref><ref name="Peden2009">Peden, Knox: ''Reason without Limits: Spinozism as Anti-Phenomenology in Twentieth-Century French Thought''. (Ph.D. thesis, [[University of California, Berkeley]], 2009)</ref><ref name="Peden2014">Peden, Knox: ''Spinoza Contra Phenomenology: French Rationalism from Cavaillès to Deleuze''. ([[Stanford University Press]], 2014) {{ISBN|9780804791342}}</ref><ref>Duffy, Simon B. (2014), 'French and Italian Spinozism,'. In: Rosi Braidotti (ed.), ''After Poststructuralism: Transitions and Transformations''. (London: Routledge, 2014), pp. 148–168</ref>
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| * [[Post-structuralism]]<ref>Simon Choat, ''Marx Through Post-Structuralism: Lyotard, Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze'', Continuum, 2010, ch. 5.</ref>
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| * [[Empiricism]]
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| }}
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| |main_interests = {{hlist|[[Aesthetics]]|[[history of Western philosophy]]|[[literary theory]]|[[metaphilosophy]]|[[metaphysics]]|[[psychoanalysis]]|[[semiotics]]
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| * [[film semiotics]]}}
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| |notable_ideas = {{collapsible list
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| |[[Affect (philosophy)|Affect]] and [[percept]]
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| |[[Arborescent]]
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| |[[Assemblage (philosophy)|Assemblage]]
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| |[[Body without organs]]
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| |[[Desiring-production]]
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| |[[Deterritorialization]]
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| |[[Event (philosophy)|Event]]
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| |[[Haecceity]]
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| |[[Identity (philosophy)|Identity]]–[[Difference (poststructuralism)|difference]] distinction
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| |[[Immanent evaluation]]
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| |[[Individuation]]
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| |[[Line of flight]]
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| |[[Minority (philosophy)|Minority]]
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| |[[Molar configuration]]
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| |[[Multiplicity (philosophy)|Multiplicity]]
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| |[[Plane of immanence]]
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| |[[Reterritorialization]]
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| |[[Rhizome (philosophy)|Rhizome]]
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| |[[Schizoanalysis]]
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| |[[Societies of control]]
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| |[[Socius (philosophy)|Socius]]
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| |[[Subjectification]]
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| |[[Transcendental empiricism]]
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| |[[Univocity of being]]
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| |[[Virtuality (philosophy)|Virtuality]]
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| |title={{nbsp}}
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| }}
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| |influences = {{hlist|
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| [[Ferdinand Alquié|Alquié]]|[[Louis Althusser|Althusser]]|[[Gregory Bateson|Bateson]]|[[Samuel Beckett|Beckett]]|[[Henri Bergson|Bergson]]|[[Jorge Luis Borges|Borges]]|[[William S. Burroughs|Burroughs]]<ref>Michael A. Peters, ''Poststructuralism, Marxism, and Neoliberalism: Between Theory and Politics'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2001, p. 103.</ref>|[[Georges Canguilhem|Canguilhem]]|[[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]|[[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]|[[Maurice de Gandillac|Gandillac]]|[[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]]|[[David Hume|Hume]]|[[Jean Hyppolite|Hyppolite]]|[[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]|[[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]|[[Pierre Klossowski|Klossowski]]|[[Jacques Lacan|Lacan]]|[[D. H. Lawrence|Lawrence]]|[[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]|[[Salomon Maimon|Maimon]]|[[Karl Marx|Marx]]|[[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]|[[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce]]<ref>Gilles Deleuze, ''[[Cinema 1: The Movement Image|Cinema 1: The Movement-Image]]'', Continuum, 2001, p. 69.</ref>|[[Marcel Proust|Proust]]|[[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]|[[Duns Scotus|Scotus]]|[[Lev Shestov|Shestov]] | [[Gilbert Simondon|Simondon]]|[[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]]|[[Jakob von Uexküll|Uexküll]]<ref name="Agamben 39">[[Giorgio Agamben]], ''The Open: Man and Animal'', trans. Kevin Attell (Stanford University Press, 2004), p. 39.</ref>|[[Jean Wahl|Wahl]]<ref>Gilles Deleuze and Claire Parnet, ''Dialogues II'', Columbia University Press, 2007, pp. 57–8, trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam: "Apart from Sartre, the most important philosopher in France was Jean Wahl." Deleuze goes on to credit Wahl for introducing him to English and American thought. Wahl was among the first to write about [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[William James]]—both arguably very important to Deleuze—in French. The idea of Anglo-American pluralism in Deleuze's work shows influence of Jean Wahl (see also Mary Frances Zamberlin, ''Rhizosphere'' (New York: Routledge, 2006, p. 47) and Simone Bignall, Sean Bowden, Paul Patton (eds.), ''Deleuze and Pragmatism'', Routledge, 2014, p. 2).</ref>|[[Alfred North Whitehead|Whitehead]]<ref>Gilles Deleuze and Claire Parnet, ''Dialogues II'', Columbia University Press, 2007, p. vii.</ref>
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| }}
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| |influenced = {{hlist|
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| [[Giorgio Agamben|Agamben]]|[[Marcella Althaus-Reid|Althaus-Reid]]|[[Alain Badiou|Badiou]]|[[Rosi Braidotti|Braidotti]]|[[Ray Brassier|Brassier]]|[[Levi Bryant|Bryant]]|[[Manuel DeLanda|DeLanda]]|[[Mark Fisher|Fisher]]|[[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]|[[Elizabeth Grosz|Grosz]]|[[Félix Guattari|Guattari]]|[[Michael Hardt|Hardt]]|[[Nick Land|Land]]|[[Bruno Latour|Latour]]<ref name="Latour">{{cite web|url=http://figureground.org/interview-with-bruno-latour/ |title=Interview With Bruno Latour |date=24 September 2013 |access-date=21 November 2019}}</ref>|[[Brian Massumi|Massumi]]|[[John Milbank|Milbank]]|[[Antonio Negri|Negri]]|[[Bryan Reynolds (scholar)|Reynolds]]|[[Peter Pál Pelbart|Pelbart]]|[[Michael J. Shapiro|Shapiro]]|[[Peter Sloterdijk|Sloterdijk]]|[[Bernard Stiegler|Stiegler]]
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| }}
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| |nationality=[[French people|French]]}}
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| '''Gilles Deleuze''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ə|ˈ|l|uː|z}} {{respell|də|LOOZ}}, {{IPA-fr|ʒil dəløz|lang}}; 18 January 1925 – 4 November 1995) was a French philosopher who, from the early 1950s until his death in 1995, wrote on [[philosophy]], literature, film, and [[fine art]]. His most popular works were the two volumes of ''[[Capitalism and Schizophrenia]]'': ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) and ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1980), both co-written with psychoanalyst [[Félix Guattari]]. His metaphysical treatise ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (1968) is considered by many scholars to be his [[magnum opus]].<ref name=SEP>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gilles Deleuze|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/deleuze/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=17 February 2011}} See also: "''Difference and Repetition'' is definitely the most important work published by Deleuze." (Edouard Morot-Sir, from the back cover of the first edition of the English translation), or James Williams' judgment: "It is nothing less than a revolution in philosophy and stands out as one of the great philosophical works of the twentieth century" (James Williams, ''Gilles Deleuze's Difference and Repetition: A Critical Introduction and Guide'' [Edinburgh UP, 2003], p. 1).</ref> | | '''Gilles Deleuze''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ə|ˈ|l|uː|z}} {{respell|də|LOOZ}}, {{IPA-fr|ʒil dəløz|lang}}; 18 January 1925 – 4 November 1995) was a French philosopher who, from the early 1950s until his death in 1995, wrote on [[philosophy]], literature, film, and [[fine art]]. His most popular works were the two volumes of ''[[Capitalism and Schizophrenia]]'': ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) and ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1980), both co-written with psychoanalyst [[Félix Guattari]]. His metaphysical treatise ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (1968) is considered by many scholars to be his [[magnum opus]].<ref name=SEP>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gilles Deleuze|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/deleuze/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=17 February 2011}} See also: "''Difference and Repetition'' is definitely the most important work published by Deleuze." (Edouard Morot-Sir, from the back cover of the first edition of the English translation), or James Williams' judgment: "It is nothing less than a revolution in philosophy and stands out as one of the great philosophical works of the twentieth century" (James Williams, ''Gilles Deleuze's Difference and Repetition: A Critical Introduction and Guide'' [Edinburgh UP, 2003], p. 1).</ref> |
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| === Early life === | | === Early life === |
| Deleuze was born into a middle-class family in [[Paris]] and lived there for most of his life. His initial schooling was undertaken during [[World War II]], during which time he attended the [[Lycée Carnot]]. He also spent a year in [[khâgne]] at the [[Lycée Henri IV]]. During the [[Nazi occupation of France]], Deleuze's older brother, Georges, was arrested for his participation in the [[French Resistance]], and died while in transit to a concentration camp.<ref>[[François Dosse]], ''Gilles Deleuze and [[Felix Guattari]]: Intersecting Lives'', trans. Deborah Glassman (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 89.</ref> In 1944, Deleuze went to study at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]. His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as [[Georges Canguilhem]], [[Jean Hyppolite]], [[Ferdinand Alquié]], and [[Maurice de Gandillac]]. Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers. | | Deleuze was born into a middle-class family in [[Paris]] and lived there for most of his life. His initial schooling was undertaken during [[World War II]], during which time he attended the [[Lycée Carnot]]. He also spent a year in [[khâgne]] at the [[Lycée Henri IV]]. During the [[Nazi occupation of France]], Deleuze's older brother, Georges, was arrested for his participation in the [[French Resistance]], and died while in transit to a concentration camp.<ref>[[François Dosse]], ''Gilles Deleuze and [[Felix Guattari]]: Intersecting Lives'', trans. Deborah Glassman (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 89.</ref> In 1944, Deleuze went to study at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]. His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as [[Georges Canguilhem]], [[Jean Hyppolite]], [[Ferdinand Alquié]], and [[Maurice de Gandillac]]. Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers. |
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| === Career ===
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| Deleuze passed the [[agrégation]] in philosophy in 1948, and taught at various [[Secondary education in France|lycées]] (Amiens, Orléans, [[Lycée Louis le Grand|Louis le Grand]]) until 1957, when he took up a position at the University of Paris. In 1953, he published his first monograph, ''Empiricism and Subjectivity'', on [[David Hume]]. This monograph was based on his 1947 DES (''{{Interlanguage link multi|diplôme d'études supérieures|fr}}'') thesis,<ref name="Schrift p. 120">Alan D. Schrift (2006), ''Twentieth-Century French Philosophy: Key Themes and Thinkers'', Blackwell Publishing, p. 117.</ref> roughly equivalent to an [[Master of Arts|M.A.]] thesis, which was conducted under the direction of [[Jean Hyppolite]] and [[Georges Canguilhem]].<ref>Daniela Voss, ''Conditions of Thought: Deleuze and Transcendental Ideas'', Edinburgh University Press, 2013, p. 76.</ref> From 1960 to 1964, he held a position at the [[French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique|Centre National de Recherche Scientifique]]. During this time he published the seminal ''[[Nietzsche and Philosophy]]'' (1962) and befriended [[Michel Foucault]]. From 1964 to 1969, he was a professor at the [[University of Lyon]]. In 1968, Deleuze defended his dissertations amid the ongoing [[May 68]] demonstrations, and later published his two dissertations, ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (supervised by Gandillac) and ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza'' (supervised by Alquié).
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| In 1969, he was appointed to the [[University of Paris VIII]] at Vincennes/St. Denis, an experimental school organized to implement educational reform. This new university drew a number of well-known academics, including Foucault (who suggested Deleuze's hiring) and the psychoanalyst [[Félix Guattari]]. Deleuze taught at Paris VIII until his retirement in 1987.
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| ===Personal life===
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| Deleuze's outlook on life was sympathetic to transcendental ideas, "nature as god" ethics, and the monist experience. Some of the important ideas he advocated for and found inspiration in, include, his personally coined expression pluralism = monism, as well as the concepts of Being and Univocity. His thoughts were shaped by Spinoza's leanings and inclinations; for Deleuze, Spinoza was the "prince" or even the “Christ” of philosophers.<ref>"Gilles Deleuze" [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/deleuze/ Deleuze and his ideas].</ref><ref>"Pluralism = Monism" [https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429022562-12/pluralism-monism-alan-schrift/ What Deleuze Learns From Nietzsche and Spinoza]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Widder|first=Nathan|title="John Duns Scotus", in Deleuze's Philosophical Lineage, ed. by Graham Jones and Jon Roffe|year=2009|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|location=Edingburgh|isbn=9780748632992|pages=27–43|url=http://www.elimeyerhoff.com/books/Deleuze/Graham%20Jones,%20Deleuze's%20Philosophical%20Lineage.pdf}}</ref><ref>"Gilles Deleuze Spoken Recording" [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/deleuze/ Deleuze and his thoughts of Spinoza].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPLJqm4VQ14</ref>
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| He married Denise Paul "Fanny" Grandjouan in 1956 and they had two children.
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| According to James Miller, Deleuze portrayed little visible interest in actually ''doing'' many of the risky things he so vividly conjured up{{clarify|date=April 2021}} in his lectures and writing. Married, with two children, he outwardly lived the life of a conventional French professor. He kept his fingernails untrimmed because, as he once explained, he lacked "normal protective fingerprints", and therefore could not "touch an object, particularly a piece of cloth, with the pads of my fingers without sharp pain".<ref>James Miller, ''The Passion of Michel Foucault'', New York: Harper Collins, 1993, p. 196.</ref>
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| When once asked to talk about his life, he replied: "Academics' lives are seldom interesting."<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 137.</ref> Deleuze concludes his reply to this critic thus:
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| {{blockquote|What do you know about me, given that I believe in secrecy? ... If I stick where I am, if I don't travel around, like anyone else I make my inner journeys that I can only measure by my emotions, and express very obliquely and circuitously in what I write. ... Arguments from one's own privileged experience are bad and reactionary arguments.<ref>''Negotiations'', pp. 11–12.</ref>}}
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| ===Death===
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| Deleuze, who had suffered from respiratory ailments from a young age,<ref>François Dosse, ''Deleuze and Guattari: Intersecting Lives'', trans D. Glassman, CUP 2010, p. 98.</ref> developed [[tuberculosis]] in 1968 and underwent lung removal.<ref>François Dosse, ''Deleuze and Guattari: Intersecting Lives'', trans D. Glassman, CUP 2010, p. 178.</ref> He suffered increasingly severe respiratory symptoms for the rest of his life.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bolzinger|first=Jean-Michel|date=26 December 2003|title=Gilles Deleuze et les médecins|url=http://www.ammppu.org/litterature/deleuze.htm|url-status=live|website=Association Médicale Mosellane de Perfectionnement Post Universitaire}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ammppu.org/litterature/deleuze.htm#(4) Gilles Deleuze et les médecins]</ref> In the last years of his life, simple tasks such as writing required laborious effort. On 4 November 1995 he committed [[suicide]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156476/Gilles-Deleuze|title=Gilles Deleuze|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=8 July 2009}}</ref> throwing himself from the window of his apartment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=French Philosopher Gilles Deleuze Commits Suicide at 70|url=https://apnews.com/article/bdba0e6c95bf6c5368be01fedfcff197|access-date=2021-04-15|website=AP NEWS}}</ref>
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| Before his death, Deleuze had announced his intention to write a book entitled ''La Grandeur de Marx'' (''The Greatness of Marx''), and left behind two chapters of an unfinished project entitled ''Ensembles and Multiplicities'' (these chapters have been published as the essays "Immanence: A Life" and "The Actual and the Virtual").<ref>François Dosse, ''Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari: Intersecting Lives'', pp. 454–455. "Immanence: A Life" has been translated and published in ''Pure Immanence'' and ''Two Regimes of Madness'', while "The Actual and Virtual" has been translated and published as an appendix to the second edition of ''Dialogues''.</ref> He is buried in the cemetery of the village of [[Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ccnoblat.fr/otsi_v2/images/publications/guides/Saint%20Leonard%20de%20Noblat.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018104643/http://www.ccnoblat.fr/otsi_v2/images/publications/guides/Saint%20Leonard%20de%20Noblat.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Communauté de Communes de Noblat|archivedate=18 October 2014}}</ref>
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| == Philosophy ==
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| Deleuze's works fall into two groups: on the one hand, monographs interpreting the work of other philosophers ([[Baruch Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[David Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Henri Bergson]], [[Michel Foucault]]) and artists ([[Marcel Proust]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Francis Bacon (artist)|Francis Bacon]]); on the other, eclectic philosophical tomes organized by concept (e.g., difference, sense, events, schizophrenia, economy, cinema, desire, philosophy). However, both of these aspects are seen by his critics and analysts as often overlapping, in particular, due to his [[prose]] and the unique mapping of his books that allow for multifaceted readings.
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| === Metaphysics<!--'Transcendental empiricism' and 'Transcendental Empiricism' redirect here--> ===
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| Deleuze's main philosophical project in the works he wrote prior to his collaborations with Guattari can be summarized as an inversion of the traditional [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] relationship between [[Identity (philosophy)|identity]] and [[Difference (poststructuralism)|difference]]. Traditionally, difference is seen as derivative from identity: e.g., to say that "X is different from Y" assumes some X and Y with at least relatively stable identities (as in Plato's forms). On the contrary, Deleuze claims that all identities are effects of difference. Identities are neither logically nor metaphysically prior to difference, Deleuze argues, "given that there exist differences of nature between things of the same genus."<ref>"Bergson's Conception of Difference", in ''Desert Islands'', p. 33.</ref> That is, not only are no two things ever the same, the categories we use to identify individuals in the first place derive from differences. Apparent identities such as "X" are composed of endless series of differences, where "X" = "the difference between x and x<math>^\prime</math>", and "x<math>^\prime</math>" = "the difference between...", and so forth. Difference, in other words, goes all the way down. To confront reality honestly, Deleuze argues, we must grasp beings exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, predicates, etc.) fail to attain what he calls "difference in itself." "If philosophy has a positive and direct relation to things, it is only insofar as philosophy claims to grasp the thing itself, according to what it is, in its difference from everything it is not, in other words, in its ''internal difference''."<ref>''Desert Islands'', p. 32.</ref>
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| Like Kant, Deleuze considers traditional notions of space and time as unifying forms imposed by the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]]. He, therefore, concludes that pure difference is non-spatiotemporal; it is an idea, what Deleuze calls "the virtual". (The coinage refers to Proust's definition of what is constant in both the past and the present: "real without being actual, ideal without being abstract.")<ref>Proust, ''Le Temps Retrouvé'', ch. III.</ref> While Deleuze's virtual ideas superficially resemble [[Plato]]'s forms and Kant's ideas of pure reason, they are not originals or models, nor do they transcend possible experience; instead they are the conditions of actual experience, the internal difference in itself. "The concept they [the conditions] form is identical to its object."<ref>''Desert Islands'', p. 36.</ref> A Deleuzean idea or concept of difference is therefore not a wraith-like abstraction of an experienced thing, it is a real system of differential relations that creates actual spaces, times, and sensations.<ref>See "The Method of Dramatization" in ''Desert Islands'', and "Actual and Virtual" in ''Dialogues II''.</ref>
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| Thus, Deleuze at times refers to his philosophy as a '''transcendental empiricism'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{lang|fr|empirisme transcendantal}}), alluding to Kant.<ref>Gilles Deleuze, ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'', Continuum, 2004[1968], pp. 56 and 143.</ref><ref>Adrian Parr (ed.), ''The Deleuze Dictionary (Revised Edition)'', Edinburgh University Press, 2010, p. 289: "Unlike Kant, Deleuze does not conceive of [...] unthought conditions as abstract or necessary philosophical entities, but as contingent tendencies beyond the reach of empirical consciousness."</ref> In Kant's [[transcendental idealism]], experience only makes sense when organized by intuitions (namely, space and time) and concepts (such as causality). Assuming the content of these intuitions and concepts to be qualities of the world as it exists independently of our perceptual access, according to Kant, spawns seductive but senseless metaphysical beliefs (for example, extending the concept of causality beyond possible experience results in unverifiable speculation about a first cause). Deleuze inverts the Kantian arrangement: experience exceeds our concepts by presenting novelty, and this raw experience of difference actualizes an idea, unfettered by our prior categories, forcing us to invent new ways of thinking (see ''[[#Epistemology|Epistemology]]'').
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| Simultaneously, Deleuze claims that [[univocity of being|being is univocal]], i.e., that all of its senses are affirmed in one voice. Deleuze borrows the doctrine of ''[[ontological]] [[univocity]]'' from the medieval philosopher [[Duns Scotus|John Duns Scotus]]. In medieval disputes over the nature of God, many eminent theologians and philosophers (such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]) held that when one says that "God is good", God's goodness is only analogous to human goodness. Scotus argued to the contrary that when one says that "God is good", the goodness in question is exactly the same sort of goodness that is meant when one says "Jane is good". That is, God only differs from us in degree, and properties such as [[good and evil|goodness]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], [[reason]], and so forth are univocally applied, regardless of whether one is talking about God, a person, or a flea.
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| Deleuze adapts the doctrine of univocity to claim that being is, univocally, difference. "With univocity, however, it is not the differences which are and must be: it is being which is Difference, in the sense that it is said of difference. Moreover, it is not we who are univocal in a Being which is not; it is we and our individuality which remains equivocal in and for a univocal Being."<ref>''[[Difference and Repetition]]'', p. 39.</ref> Here Deleuze at once echoes and inverts Spinoza, who maintained that everything that exists is a modification of the one [[substance theory|substance]], [[God]] or [[Nature]]. For Deleuze, there is no one substance, only an always-differentiating [[process philosophy|process]], an [[origami]] cosmos, always folding, unfolding, refolding. Deleuze summarizes this ontology in the paradoxical formula "[[pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]] = [[monism]]".<ref>''A Thousand Plateaus'', p. 20.</ref>
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| ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (1968) is Deleuze's most sustained and systematic attempt to work out the details of such a metaphysics, but his other works develop similar ideas. In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962), for example, reality is a play of forces; in ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972), a "[[body without organs]]"; in ''[[What is Philosophy? (Deleuze and Guattari)|What is Philosophy?]]'' (1991), a "[[plane of immanence]]" or "chaosmos".
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| === Epistemology ===
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| Deleuze's unusual metaphysics entails an equally atypical [[epistemology]], or what he calls a transformation of "the image of thought". According to Deleuze, the traditional image of thought, found in philosophers such as [[Aristotle]], [[René Descartes]], and [[Edmund Husserl]], misconceives thinking as a mostly unproblematic business. Truth may be hard to discover—it may require a life of pure theorizing, or rigorous computation, or systematic doubt—but thinking is able, at least in principle, to correctly grasp facts, forms, ideas, etc. It may be practically impossible to attain a God's-eye, [[Objectivity (philosophy)|neutral point of view]], but that is the ideal to approximate: a disinterested pursuit that results in a determinate, fixed truth; an orderly extension of common sense. Deleuze rejects this view as papering over the metaphysical flux, instead claiming that genuine thinking is a violent confrontation with reality, an involuntary rupture of established categories. Truth changes what we think; it alters what we think is possible. By setting aside the assumption that thinking has a natural ability to recognize the truth, Deleuze says, we attain a "thought without image", a thought always determined by problems rather than solving them. "All this, however, presupposes codes or axioms which do not result by chance, but which do not have an intrinsic rationality either. It's just like theology: everything about it is quite rational if you accept sin, the immaculate conception, and the incarnation. Reason is always a region carved out of the irrational—not sheltered from the irrational at all, but traversed by it and only defined by a particular kind of relationship among irrational factors. Underneath all reason lies delirium, and drift."<ref>''Desert Islands'', p. 262.</ref>
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| ''[[The Logic of Sense]]'', published in 1969, is one of Deleuze's most peculiar works in the field of epistemology. [[Michel Foucault]], in his essay "Theatrum Philosophicum" about the book, attributed this to how he begins with his metaphysics but approaches it through language and truth; the book is focused on "the simple condition that instead of denouncing metaphysics as the neglect of being, we force it to speak of extrabeing".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.generation-online.org/p/fpfoucault5.htm|title=Theatrum Philosophicum|website=www.generation-online.org}}</ref> In it, he refers to epistemological [[paradox]]es: in the first series, as he analyzes [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Alice in Wonderland]]'', he remarks that "the personal self requires [[God]] and the world in general. But when substantives and adjectives begin to dissolve, when the names of pause and rest are carried away by the verbs of pure becoming and slide into the language of events, all identity disappears from the self, the world, and God."<ref>''The Logic of Sense'', p. 3.</ref>
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| Deleuze's peculiar readings of the history of philosophy stem from this unusual epistemological perspective. To read a philosopher is no longer to aim at finding a single, correct interpretation, but is instead to present a philosopher's attempt to grapple with the problematic nature of reality. "Philosophers introduce new concepts, they explain them, but they don't tell us, not completely anyway, the problems to which those concepts are a response. [...] The history of philosophy, rather than repeating what a philosopher says, has to say what he must have taken for granted, what he didn't say but is nonetheless present in what he did say."<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 136.</ref>
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| Likewise, rather than seeing philosophy as a timeless pursuit of truth, reason, or universals, Deleuze [[Definitions of philosophy|defines philosophy]] as the creation of [[concept]]s. For Deleuze, concepts are not identity conditions or propositions, but metaphysical constructions that define a range of thinking, such as Plato's [[theory of forms|ideas]], Descartes's ''[[cogito ergo sum|cogito]]'', or Kant's doctrine of the faculties. A philosophical concept "posits itself and its object at the same time as it is created."<ref>''What Is Philosophy?'', p. 22.</ref> In Deleuze's view, then, philosophy more closely resembles practical or artistic production than it does an adjunct to a definitive scientific description of a pre-existing world (as in the tradition of [[John Locke]] or [[Willard Van Orman Quine]]).
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| In his later work (from roughly 1981 onward), Deleuze sharply distinguishes art, philosophy, and science as three distinct disciplines, each analyzing reality in different ways. While philosophy creates concepts, the arts create novel qualitative combinations of sensation and feeling (what Deleuze calls "[[percept]]s" and "[[Affect (philosophy)|affects]]"), and the sciences create quantitative theories based on fixed points of reference such as the [[speed of light]] or [[absolute zero]] (which Deleuze calls "functives"). According to Deleuze, none of these disciplines enjoy primacy over the others:<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 123.</ref> they are different ways of organizing the metaphysical flux, "separate melodic lines in constant interplay with one another."<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 125. Cf. Spinoza's claim that the mind and the body are different modes expressing the same substance.</ref> For example, Deleuze does not treat cinema as an art representing an external reality, but as an ontological practice that creates different ways of organizing movement and time.<ref>''[[Cinema 1: The Movement Image]]''</ref> Philosophy, science, and art are equally, and essentially, creative and practical. Hence, instead of asking traditional questions of identity such as "is it true?" or "what is it?", Deleuze proposes that inquiries should be functional or practical: "what does it do?" or "how does it work?"<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 21: "We're strict functionalists: what we're interested in is how something works".</ref>
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| === Values<!--'Control society', 'Society of control', 'Societies of control' and 'Socius (philosophy)' redirect here--> ===
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| {{redirect|Control society|the broader social-scientific concept|Social control}}
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| In ethics and politics, Deleuze again echoes Spinoza, albeit in a sharply Nietzschean key. In a [[Classical liberalism|classical liberal]] model of society, morality begins from individuals, who bear abstract [[natural rights]] or duties set by themselves or a God. Following his rejection of any metaphysics based on identity, Deleuze criticizes the notion of an individual as an arresting or halting of differentiation (as the etymology of the word "individual" suggests). Guided by the [[Ethical naturalism|naturalistic ethics]] of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze instead seeks to understand individuals and their moralities as products of the organization of pre-individual desires and powers.<ref>{{Citation | title= Love's Lessons: Intimacy, Pedagogy and Political Community| first1= Timothy | last1= Laurie | first2= Hannah | last2= Stark | journal=Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities | volume= 22 | issue= 4 | pages= 69–79 | year= 2017 | url = https://www.academia.edu/35349930}}</ref>
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| In the two volumes of ''[[Capitalism and Schizophrenia]]'', ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) and ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1980), Deleuze and Guattari describe history as a congealing and regimentation of "[[desiring-production]]" (a concept combining features of [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] drives and [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Labour economics|labor]]) into the modern individual (typically neurotic and repressed), the nation-state (a society of continuous control), and [[capitalism]] (an anarchy domesticated into infantilizing commodification). Deleuze, following [[Karl Marx]], welcomes capitalism's destruction of traditional social hierarchies as liberating but inveighs against its homogenization of all values to the aims of the market.
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| The first part of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia'' undertakes a [[universal history]] and posits the existence of a separate '''socius'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> (the social body that takes credit for [[Production (economics)|production]]) for each [[mode of production]]: the earth for the [[tribe]], the body of the [[Despotism|despot]] for the [[empire]], and [[Capital (economics)|capital]] for [[capitalism]]."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gilles Deleuze|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/deleuze/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=1 July 2018}}).</ref><ref>Daniel W. Smith, Henry Somers-Hall (eds.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Deleuze'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 137.</ref>
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| In his 1990 essay "Postscript on the Societies of Control" ("Post-scriptum sur les sociétés de contrôle"), Deleuze builds on Foucault's notion of the society of discipline to argue that society is undergoing a shift in structure and control. Where societies of discipline were characterized by discrete physical enclosures (such as schools, factories, prisons, office buildings, etc.), institutions and technologies introduced since World War II have dissolved the boundaries between these enclosures. As a result, social coercion and discipline have moved into the lives of individuals considered as "masses, samples, data, markets, or 'banks'." The mechanisms of modern '''societies of control'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> are described as continuous, following and tracking individuals throughout their existence via transaction records, mobile location tracking, and other [[personally identifiable information]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Deleuze|first1=Gilles|title=Postscript on the Societies of Control|journal= October|date=October 1992|volume=59|pages=3–7|jstor=778828}}</ref>
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| But how does Deleuze square his pessimistic diagnoses with his ethical naturalism? Deleuze claims that standards of value are internal or [[Immanence|immanent]]: to live well is to fully express one's power, to go to the limits of one's potential, rather than to judge what exists by non-empirical, transcendent standards. Modern society still suppresses difference and alienates people from what they can do. To affirm reality, which is a flux of change and difference, we must overturn established identities and so become all that we can become—though we cannot know what that is in advance. The pinnacle of Deleuzean practice, then, is creativity. "Herein, perhaps, lies the secret: to bring into existence and not to judge. If it is so disgusting to judge, it is not because everything is of equal value, but on the contrary, because what has value can be made or distinguished only by defying judgment. What expert judgment, in art, could ever bear on the work to come?"<ref>''Essays Critical and Clinical'', p. 135.</ref>
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| === Deleuze's interpretations ===
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| Deleuze's studies of individual philosophers and artists are purposely heterodox. In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'', for example, Deleuze claims that Nietzsche's ''[[On the Genealogy of Morality]]'' (1887) is an attempt to rewrite Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' (1781),<ref>''Nietzsche and Philosophy'', p. 88.</ref> even though Nietzsche nowhere mentions the First Critique in the ''Genealogy'', and the ''Genealogy'''s moral topics are far removed from the epistemological focus of Kant's book. Likewise, Deleuze claims that univocity is the organizing principle of Spinoza's philosophy, despite the total absence of the term from any of Spinoza's works. Deleuze once famously described his method of interpreting philosophers as "buggery (''enculage'')", as sneaking behind an author and producing an offspring which is recognizably his, yet also monstrous and different.<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 6. See also: Daniel W. Smith, "The Inverse Side of the Structure: Zizek on Deleuze on Lacan", ''Criticism'' (2004): "Deleuze's all-too-well-known image of philosophical "buggery," which makes thinkers produce their own "monstrous" children"; Robert Sinnerbrink (in "Nomadology or Ideology? Zizek’s Critique of Deleuze", ''Parrhesia'' 1 (2006): 62–87) describes the "popular topic" of Deleuze's "notorious remarks"; Donald Callen (in "The Difficult Middle", ''Rhizomes'' 10 (Spring 2005)) describes "intellectual buggery" as "what Deleuze himself famously said about his encounters with the works of other philosophers." Deleuze's buggery analogy is also cited by, among many others, Brian Massumi, ''A User's Guide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia'' (MIT Press, 1992), p. 2; Slavoj Žižek, ''Organs without Bodies'' (Routledge, 2004), p. 48; Ian Buchanan, ''A Deleuzian Century?'' (Duke UP, 1999), p. 8; Jean-Jacques Lecercle, ''Deleuze and Language'' (Macmillan, 2002), p. 37; [[Gregg Lambert]], ''The Non-Philosophy of Gilles Deleuze'' (Continuum, 2002), p. x; [[Claire Colebrook]], ''Understanding Deleuze'' (Allen & Unwin, 2003), p. 73; and Charles Stivale, ''Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts'' (McGill-Queen's, 2005), p. 3.</ref>
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| The various monographs thus are not attempts to present what Nietzsche or Spinoza strictly intended, but re-stagings of their ideas in different and unexpected ways. Deleuze's peculiar readings aim to enact the creativity he believes is the acme of philosophical practice.<ref>''Desert Islands'', p. 144.</ref> A parallel in painting Deleuze points to is Francis Bacon's ''[[Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X|Study after Velázquez]]''—it is quite beside the point to say that Bacon "gets Velasquez wrong".<ref>''Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation'', pp. 46f: "[Bacon] let loose ... presences" already in Velázquez's painting. Cf. the passage cited above, from ''Negotiations'', p. 136: "The history of philosophy, rather than repeating what a philosopher says, has to say what he must have taken for granted, what he didn't say but is nonetheless present in what he did say."</ref> Similar considerations apply, in Deleuze's view, to his own uses of mathematical and scientific terms, ''pace'' critics such as [[Alan Sokal]]: "I'm not saying that [[Alain Resnais|Resnais]] and [[Ilya Prigogine|Prigogine]], or [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]] and [[René Thom|Thom]], are doing the same thing. I'm pointing out, rather, that there are remarkable similarities between scientific creators of functions and cinematic creators of images. And the same goes for philosophical concepts, since there are distinct concepts of these spaces."<ref>''Negotiations'', pp. 124–125.</ref>
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| Along with several French and Italian Marxist-inspired thinkers like [[Louis Althusser]],<ref>
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| * [[Louis Althusser]]: "...Spinoza's philosophy introduced an unprecedented theoretical revolution in the history of philosophy, probably the greatest philosophical revolution of all time, insofar as we can regard Spinoza as Marx's only direct ancestor, from the philosophical standpoint. However, this radical revolution was the object of massive historical repression, and Spinozist philosophy suffered much the same fate as Marxist philosophy used to and still does suffer in some countries: it served as damning evidence for a charge of ‘atheism’." (''Reading Capital'', 1968)
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| * Louis Althusser: "...If we never were structuralists, we can now explain why: why we seemed to be, even though we were not, why there came about this strange misunderstanding on the basis of which books were written. We were guilty of an equally powerful and compromising passion: we were Spinozists. In our own way, of course, which was not [[Léon Brunschvicg|Brunschvicg]]'s! And by attributing to the author of the ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' and the ''Ethics'' a number of theses which he would surely never have acknowledged, though they did not actually contradict him. But to be a heretical Spinozist is almost orthodox Spinozism, if Spinozism can be said to be one of the greatest lessons in heresy that the world has seen!" (''Essay in Self-Criticism'', 1976)</ref> [[Étienne Balibar]], and [[Antonio Negri]],<ref>Also including Alain Billecoq, Francesco Cerrato, Paolo Cristofolini, [[Martial Gueroult]], Chantal Jaquet, [[Frédéric Lordon]], [[Pierre Macherey]], Frédéric Manzini, Alexandre Matheron, Filippo Mignini, [[Robert Misrahi]], Pierre-François Moreau, Vittorio Morfino, Charles Ramond, Bernard Rousset, Pascal Sévérac, [[André Tosel]], and Sylvain Zac.</ref> he was one of the central figures in a great flowering of [[Spinoza]] studies in the late 20th and early 21st centuries [[continental philosophy]] (or the rise of French-inspired post-structuralist [[:Category:Neo-Spinozism|Neo-Spinozism]])<ref name="Peden2009"/><ref name="Peden2014"/><ref name="Vinciguerra">Vinciguerra, Lorenzo (2009), 'Spinoza in French Philosophy Today,'. ''Philosophy Today'' 53(4): 422–437</ref><ref name="Duffy">Duffy, Simon B. (2014), 'French and Italian Spinozism,'. In: [[Rosi Braidotti]] (ed.), ''After [[Poststructuralism]]: Transitions and Transformations''. (London: Routledge, 2014), p. 148–168</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.radicalphilosophy.com/article/is-it-simple-to-be-a-spinozist-in-philosophy |author=Diefenbach, Katja |title=Is it simple to be a Spinozist in philosophy? Althusser and Deleuze |publisher=[[Radical Philosophy|RadicalPhilosophy.com]] |quote=Katja Diefenbach: "''Reading Capital'' [by Louis Althusser] forms the prelude to a wave of Spinoza receptions, in which seventeenth-century metaphysics is shifted far beyond Marxism into the radiant presence of structuralist philosophy. While after [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]]'s Paris lectures on the ''Meditations'' and [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]'s publication of ''The Transcendence of the Ego'', France experienced a phenomenological Descartes revival, Spinoza research [especially in France] remained, until the mid-1960s, a largely underdeveloped field. In the course of a fulminant boost in reception in 1968 and 1969, in almost a single year, the studies of [[Martial Gueroult]], Alexandre Matheron, Gilles Deleuze and Bernard Rousset were published." |date=September 2016 |access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> that was the second remarkable Spinoza revival in history, after highly significant Neo-Spinozism in German philosophy and literature of approximately the late 18th and early 19th centuries.<ref>Forster, Michael N.: ''After Herder: Philosophy of Language in the German Tradition''. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). [[Michael N. Forster]] (2010): "During the last quarter or so of the eighteenth century and then well into the nineteenth century a wave of neo-[[Spinozism]] swept through German philosophy and literature: in addition to [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]] and [[Johann Gottfried von Herder|Herder]], further neo-Spinozists included [[Goethe]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Hegel]], [[Schleiermacher]], [[Hölderlin]], [[Novalis]], and [[Friedrich Schlegel]]."</ref> A fervent Spinozist in many respects, Deleuze's preoccupation with and reverence for Spinoza are well known in contemporary philosophy.<ref>
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| * Deleuze: "It was on Spinoza that I worked the most seriously according to the norms of the history of philosophy — but he more than any other gave me the feeling of a gust of air from behind each time you read him, of a witch's broom which he makes you mount. We have not yet begun to understand Spinoza, and I myself no more than others." (As quoted in [[w:Pierre Macherey|Pierre Macherey]]'s essay 'Deleuze in Spinoza') [original in French]
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| * Deleuze: "...I consider myself a [[Spinozist]], rather than a [[Leibnizian]], although I owe a lot to Leibniz. In the book I'm writing at the moment, ''[[What is Philosophy? (Deleuze and Guattari)|What is Philosophy?]]'', I try to return to this problem of absolute immanence, and to say why Spinoza is for me the 'prince' of philosophers." (''Spinoza: Expressionism in Philosophy'', 1992) [Translated from the French by Martin Joughin]
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| * Deleuze & [[Félix Guattari|Guattari]]: "...Spinoza is the Christ of philosophers, and the greatest philosophers are hardly more than apostles who distance themselves from or draw near to this mystery. [...] Spinoza was the philosopher who knew full well that immanence was only immanent to itself and therefore that it was a plane traversed by movements of the infinite, filled with intensive ordinates. He is therefore the prince of philosophers. Perhaps he is the only philosopher never to have compromised with transcendence and to have hunted it down everywhere." (''[[What is Philosophy? (Deleuze and Guattari)|What is Philosophy?]]'') [original in French]</ref><ref>[[Alain Badiou|Badiou, Alain]]: ''Deleuze: La clameur de l'être''. (Paris: Hachette, 1997)</ref><ref>Badiou, Alain: ''Deleuze: The Clamor of Being''. Translated from the French by Louise Burchill. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000). [[Alain Badiou]] (1997): "He [Deleuze] said of Spinoza that he was the Christ of philosophy. To do Deleuze full justice, let us say that, of this Christ and his inflexible announcement of salvation by the All — a salvation that promises nothing, a salvation that is always already there — he was truly a most eminent apostle."</ref><ref>[[Slavoj Žižek|Žižek, Slavoj]]: ''Bodies Without Organs: On Deleuze and Consequences''. (New York: Routledge, 2004). Slavoj Žižek: "...Perhaps, a return to the philosopher who is Deleuze's unsurpassable point of reference will help us to unravel this ambiguity in Deleuze's ontological edifice: Spinoza. Deleuze is far from alone in his unconditional admiration for Spinoza."</ref>
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| === Philosophical similarities with Heidegger ===
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| From the 1930s onward, German philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]] wrote in a series of manuscripts and books on concepts of Difference, Identity, [[Object (philosophy)|Representation]], and [[Event (philosophy)|Event]]; notably among these the [[Contributions to Philosophy|''Beiträge zur Philosophie'' ''(Vom Ereignis)'']] (Written 1936-38; published posthumously 1989); none of the relevant texts not translated into French by Deleuze's death in 1995, excluding any strong possibility of appropriation. However, Heidegger's early work can be traced through mathematician [[Albert Lautman]], who drew heavily from Heidegger's ''[[Being and Time|Sein und Zeit]]'' and ''Vom Wesen des Grundes'' (1928), which James Bahoh describes as having "...decisive influence on the twentieth century mathematician and philosopher [...] whose theory of dialectical Ideas Deleuze appropriated and modified for his own use."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahoh |first=James |title=Heidegger and Deleuze: The Groundwork of Evental Ontology |publisher=Duquesne University |year=2016 |pages=3 |language=EN}}</ref> The similarities between Heidegger's later, [[Kehre|post-turn]], 1930-1976 thought and Deleuze's early works in the 60s and 70s are generally described by Deleuze-scholar Daniel W. Smith in the following way: <blockquote>"''Difference and Repetition'' could be read as a response to ''Being and Time'' (for Deleuze, Being is difference, and time is repetition)."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Daniel |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1302164289 |title=Essays on Deleuze |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7486-4334-9 |pages=30 |oclc=1302164289}}</ref></blockquote>Bahoh continues in saying that: "...then ''Beiträge'' could be read as ''Difference and Repetition''<nowiki/>'s unknowing and anachronistic doppelgänger."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahoh |first=James |title=Heidegger and Deleuze: The Groundwork of Evental Ontology |publisher=Duquesne University |year=2016 |pages=6-7 |language=EN}}</ref> Deleuze and Heidegger's philosophy is considered to converge on the topics of Difference and the Event. Where, for Heidegger, an evental being is constituted in part by difference as "...an essential dimension of the concept of event"; for Deleuze, being is difference, and difference "differentiates by way of events." In contrast, to this, however, Jussi Backman argues that, for Heidegger, being is united only insofar as it consists of and ''is'' difference, or rather as the movement of difference, not too dissimilar to Deleuze's later claims:<blockquote>"...the unity and univocity of being (in the sense of being), its 'selfsameness,' paradoxically consists exclusively in difference."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Backman |first=Jussi |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/946567759 |title=Complicated Presence: Heidegger and the Postmetaphysical Unity of Being |date= |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4384-5648-5 |pages=234 |oclc=946567759}}</ref></blockquote>This mutual apprehension of a differential, Evental ontology lead both thinkers into an extended critique of the representation characteristic to Platonic, Aristotelian, and Cartesian thought; as Joe Hughes states: "''Difference and Repetition'' is a detective novel. It tells the story of what some readers of Deleuze might consider a horrendous crime [...]: the birth of representation."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Joe |title=Deleuze's Difference and Repetition |publisher=Continuum |year=2009 |isbn=0-8264-2112-1 |location=London |pages=24 |language=EN}}</ref> Heidegger formed his critiques most decisively in the concept of the fourfold [''German: das Geviert''], a non-metaphysical grounding for the thing (as opposed to "object") as "ungrounded, mediated, meaningful, and shared"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Andrew |title=The Fourfold: Reading the Late Heidegger |publisher=Northwestern University |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-8101-3076-0 |pages=308 |language=EN}}</ref> united in an "event of appropriation" [''Ereignis'']. This evental ontology continues in ''Identität und Differenz'', where the fundamental concept expressed in ''Difference and Repetition'', of dethroning the primacy of identity, can be seen throughout the text. Even in earlier Heideggerian texts such as ''Sein und Zeit'', however, the critique of representation is "...cast in terms of the being of truth, or the processes of uncovering and covering (grounded in Dasein's existence) whereby beings come into and withdraw from phenomenal presence." In parallel, Deleuze's extended critique of representation (in the sense of detailing a "genealogy" of the antiquated beliefs as well) is given "...in terms of being or becoming as difference and repetition, together with genetic processes of individuation whereby beings come to exist and pass out of existence."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahoh |first=James |title=Heidegger and Deleuze: The Groundwork of Evental Ontology |publisher=Duquesne University |year=2016 |pages=113 |language=EN}}</ref>
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| Time and space, for both thinkers, is also constituted in nearly identical ways. Time-space in the ''Beiträge'' and the three syntheses in ''Difference and Repetition''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deleuze |first=Gilles |title=Difference and Repetition |publisher=Continuum |year=2001 |isbn=0-8264-5957-9 |location=London |pages=79 |language=EN}}</ref> both apprehend time as grounded in difference, whilst the distinction between the time-space of the world [Welt] and the time-space as the evental production of such a time-space is mirrored by Deleuze's categorization between the temporality of what is actual and temporality of the virtual in the first and the second/third syntheses respectively.
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| Another parallel can be found in their utilization of so-called "generative paradoxes," or rather problems whose fundamental problematic element is constantly outside the categorical grasp fond of formal, natural, and human sciences. For Heidegger, this is the Earth in the fourfold, something which has as one of its traits the behaviour of "resisting articulation," what he characterizes as a "strife";<ref>{{Citation |last=Canan |first=Alberto Carillo |title=The Concept of "Earth" in Heidegger: History and the "Oblivion of Being" |date=2001 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0930-0_8 |work=Passions of the Earth in Human Existence, Creativity, and Literature |pages=101–110 |editor-last=Tymieniecka |editor-first=Anna-Teresa |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-0930-0_8 |isbn=978-94-010-0930-0 |access-date=2022-05-03}}</ref> for Deleuze, a similar example can be spotted in the paradox of regress, or of indefinite proliferation in the ''Logic of Sense''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deleuze |first=Gilles |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/920869689 |title=Logic of Sense |publisher=The Athlone Press |year=1990 |isbn=1-4742-3488-7 |location=London |pages=28 |language=EN |oclc=920869689}}</ref>
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| == Reception ==
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| In the 1960s, Deleuze's portrayal of Nietzsche as a metaphysician of difference rather than a reactionary mystic contributed greatly to the plausibility and popularity of "left-wing Nietzscheanism" as an intellectual stance.<ref>See, e.g., the approving reference to Deleuze's Nietzsche study in [[Jacques Derrida]]'s essay "''Différance''", or [[Pierre Klossowski]]'s monograph ''Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle'', dedicated to Deleuze. More generally, see D. Allison (ed.), ''The New Nietzsche'' (MIT Press, 1985), and L. Ferry and A. Renaut (eds.), ''Why We Are Not Nietzscheans'' (University of Chicago Press, 1997).</ref> His books ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (1968) and ''[[The Logic of Sense]]'' (1969) led [[Michel Foucault]] to declare that "one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian."<ref>Foucault, "Theatrum Philosophicum", ''Critique'' 282, p. 885.</ref> (Deleuze, for his part, said Foucault's comment was "a joke meant to make people who like us laugh, and make everyone else livid."<ref>''Negotiations'', p. 4. However, in a later interview, Deleuze commented: "I don't know what Foucault meant, I never asked him" (''Negotiations'', p. 88).</ref>) In the 1970s, the ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'', written in a style by turns vulgar and esoteric,<ref>Sometimes in the same sentence: "one is thus traversed, broken, fucked by the [[Socius (philosophy)|socius]]" (''Anti-Oedipus'', p. 347).</ref> offering a sweeping analysis of the family, language, capitalism, and history via eclectic borrowings from Freud, Marx, Nietzsche, and dozens of other writers, was received as a theoretical embodiment of the anarchic spirit of [[May 1968 in France|May 1968]]. In 1994 and 1995, ''[[L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze]]'', an eight-hour series of interviews between Deleuze and [[Claire Parnet]], aired on France's [[Arte]] Channel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.langlab.wayne.edu/CStivale/D-G/ABC1.html|title=Charles J. Stivale -- A-F Summary of L'Abecedaire de Gilles Deleuze|website=www.langlab.wayne.edu|date=6 December 2021}}</ref>
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| In the 1980s and 1990s, almost all of Deleuze's books were translated into English. Deleuze's work is frequently cited in English-speaking academia (in 2007, e.g., he was the 11th most frequently cited author in English-speaking publications in the humanities, between Freud and Kant).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=405956§ioncode=26 |title=The most cited authors of books in the humanities |publisher=timeshighereducation.co.uk |date=2009-03-26 |access-date=2010-07-04}}</ref> Like his contemporaries Foucault, [[Jacques Derrida]], and [[Jean-François Lyotard]], Deleuze's influence has been most strongly felt in North American humanities departments, particularly in [[literary theory]], where ''Anti-Oedipus'' and ''A Thousand Plateaus'' are oft regarded as major statements of [[post-structuralism]] and [[postmodernism]],<ref name="See 1991"/> though neither Deleuze nor Guattari described their work in those terms. Likewise in the English-speaking academy, Deleuze's work is typically classified as [[continental philosophy]].<ref>See, e.g., Simon Glendinning, ''The Idea of Continental Philosophy'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2006), p. 54.</ref>
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| Deleuze has attracted critics as well. The following list is not exhaustive and gives only the briefest of summaries.
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| Among French philosophers, [[Vincent Descombes]] argues that Deleuze's account of a difference that is not derived from identity (in ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'') is incoherent, and that his analysis of history in ''Anti-Oedipus'' is 'utter idealism', criticizing reality for falling short of a non-existent ideal of schizophrenic becoming.<ref>{{cite book|last=Descombes|first=Vincent|title=Modern French Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/modernfrenchphil0000desc|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-29672-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/modernfrenchphil0000desc/page/155 155]–6, 175–8}}</ref> According to [[Pascal Engel]], Deleuze's metaphilosophical approach makes it impossible to reasonably disagree with a philosophical system, and so destroys meaning, truth, and philosophy itself. Engel summarizes Deleuze's metaphilosophy thus: "When faced with a beautiful philosophical concept you should just sit back and admire it. You should not question it."<ref>Barry Smith (ed.), ''European Philosophy and the American Academy'', p. 34.</ref> [[Alain Badiou]] claims that Deleuze's metaphysics only apparently embraces plurality and diversity, remaining at bottom [[monism|monist]]. Badiou further argues that, in practical matters, Deleuze's monism entails an ascetic, aristocratic [[fatalism]] akin to ancient [[Stoicism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Badiou|first=Alain|title=Deleuze: the clamor of being|year=2000|publisher=University of Minnesota|location=Minneapolis, MN|isbn=0-8166-3139-5}}</ref>
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| Other European philosophers have criticized Deleuze's theory of subjectivity. For example, [[Manfred Frank]] claims that Deleuze's theory of [[individuation]] as a process of bottomless differentiation fails to explain the unity of consciousness.<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank|first=Manfred|title=What Is Neostructuralism?|year=1989|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|page=385|isbn=978-0816616022}}</ref> [[Slavoj Žižek]] claims that Deleuze's [[ontology]] oscillates between [[materialism]] and [[idealism]],<ref>Slavoj Žižek, ''Organs without Bodies'', 2004, pp. 19–32, esp. p. 21: "Is this opposition not, yet again, that of materialism versus idealism? In Deleuze, this means ''The Logic of Sense'' versus ''Anti-Oedipus''." See also p. 28 for "Deleuze's oscillation between the two models" of becoming.</ref> and that the Deleuze of ''Anti-Oedipus'' ("arguably Deleuze's worst book"),<ref>Žižek 2004, p. 21</ref> the "political" Deleuze under the "'bad' influence" of Guattari, ends up, despite protestations to the contrary, as "the ideologist of late capitalism".<ref>Žižek 2004, pp. 32, 20, and 184.</ref> Žižek also calls Deleuze to task for allegedly reducing the subject to "just another" substance and thereby failing to grasp the [[nothingness]] that, according to Lacan and Žižek, defines [[subjectivity]]. What remains worthwhile in Deleuze's oeuvre, Žižek finds, are precisely Deleuze's engagements with virtuality as the product of negativity.<ref>Žižek 2004, p. 68: "This brings us to the topic of the ''subject'' that, according to Lacan, emerges in the interstice of the 'minimal difference,' in the minimal gap between two signifiers. In this sense, the subject is 'a nothingness, a void, which exists.' ... This, then, is what Deleuze seems to get wrong in his reduction of the subject to (just another) substance. Far from belonging to the level of actualization, of distinct entities in the order of constituted reality, the dimension of the 'subject' designates the ''reemergence of the virtual within the order of actuality''. 'Subject' names the unique space of the explosion of virtuality within constituted reality."</ref>
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| English-speaking philosophers have also criticized aspects of Deleuze's work. [[Stanley Rosen]] objects to Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's [[eternal return]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Rosen|first=Stanley|title=The Mask of Enlightenment|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-49546-6|pages=ix–x}}</ref> [[Todd May]] argues that Deleuze's claim that difference is ontologically primary ultimately contradicts his embrace of immanence, i.e., his monism. However, May believes that Deleuze can discard the primacy-of-difference thesis, and accept a [[Wittgenstein]]ian [[holism]] without significantly altering his practical philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Pennsylvania State Univ Pr| isbn = 978-0-271-01657-3| last = May| first = Todd| title = Reconsidering Difference: Nancy, Derrida, Levinas, and Deleuze| date = 1997-07-01}}</ref> [[Peter Hallward]] argues that Deleuze's insistence that being is necessarily creative and always-differentiating entails that his philosophy can offer no insight into, and is supremely indifferent to, the material, actual conditions of existence. Thus Hallward claims that Deleuze's thought is literally other-worldly, aiming only at a passive contemplation of the dissolution of all identity into the [[theophany|theophanic]] self-creation of nature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hallward|first=Peter|title=Out of This World|year=2006|publisher=Verso|location=New York|isbn=978-1844675555}}</ref>
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| In ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]'' (1997), physicists [[Alan Sokal]] and [[Jean Bricmont]] accuse Deleuze of abusing mathematical and scientific terms, particularly by sliding between accepted technical meanings and his own idiosyncratic use of those terms in his works. Sokal and Bricmont state that they don't object to metaphorical reasoning, including with mathematical concepts, but mathematical and scientific terms are useful only insofar as they are precise. They give examples of mathematical concepts being "abused" by taking them out of their intended meaning, rendering the idea into normal language reduces it to truism or nonsense. In their opinion, Deleuze used mathematical concepts about which the typical reader might be not knowledgeable, and thus served to display [[Boasting|erudition]] rather than enlightening the reader. Sokal and Bricmont state that they only deal with the "abuse" of mathematical and scientific concepts and explicitly suspend judgment about Deleuze's wider contributions.<ref name="SokalBricmont1999">{{cite book|author1=Alan Sokal|author2=Jean Bricmont|title=Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SM8zAd3z3ugC|date=29 October 1999|publisher=St Martins Press (ny)|isbn=978-0-312-20407-5|pages=22–25, 154–169}}</ref>
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| Other scholars in continental philosophy, feminist studies and sexuality studies have taken Deleuze's analysis of the sexual dynamics of sadism and masochism with a level of uncritical celebration following the 1989 Zone Books translation of the 1967 booklet on [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]], ''Le froid et le cruel'' (Coldness and Cruelty). As sexuality historian Alison M. Moore notes, Deleuze's own value placed on difference is poorly reflected in this booklet which fails to differentiate between Masoch's own view of his desire and that imposed upon him by the pathologizing forms of psychiatric thought prevailing in the late nineteenth century which produced the concept of 'masochism' (a term Masoch himself emphatically rejected).<ref>Alison Moore, Recovering Difference in the Deleuzian Dichotomy of Masochism-without-Sadism, ''Angelaki'' volume 14, issue 3</ref> | | Other scholars in continental philosophy, feminist studies and sexuality studies have taken Deleuze's analysis of the sexual dynamics of sadism and masochism with a level of uncritical celebration following the 1989 Zone Books translation of the 1967 booklet on [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]], ''Le froid et le cruel'' (Coldness and Cruelty). As sexuality historian Alison M. Moore notes, Deleuze's own value placed on difference is poorly reflected in this booklet which fails to differentiate between Masoch's own view of his desire and that imposed upon him by the pathologizing forms of psychiatric thought prevailing in the late nineteenth century which produced the concept of 'masochism' (a term Masoch himself emphatically rejected).<ref>Alison Moore, Recovering Difference in the Deleuzian Dichotomy of Masochism-without-Sadism, ''Angelaki'' volume 14, issue 3</ref> |